The suffering of the troops on the Western Front is well known, with the mud, rats and desolate wasteland being familiar, even stereotypical images. Those who served in the Middle East theatres faced different trials – sometimes the complete opposite of their colleagues in France.
Some wartime and post-war narratives of the campaigns in Egypt and Palestine played down the difficulties faced by the troops. After all, the tempo of operations for the Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) was fairly low for much of the war, and to the press or those who had not been there the sun and the sand could give the mistaken impression that life among the ‘Pyramids and fleshpots’ of the mysterious East was an extended holiday. In truth every day could be a struggle to survive in an almost totally alien environment. Few, if any, of the British troops (all of them from the Territorial Forces or Kitchener’s Army) would have left their own country before, let alone travelled in such areas. Even the Australian personnel, many of whom would have been used to a hotter and harsher environment, would find it difficult.
It should not be forgotten what a ‘culture shock’ arriving in Egypt would have been to almost everyone. In an age before colour magazines let alone television to prepare them to foreign cultures, the vibrant sights, sounds and smells of Alexandria, Port Said or Cairo would have been almost overwhelming. From there, men would have been sent to the very different but equally strange environment of the desert. Here, life could be very hard indeed.
Some wartime and post-war narratives of the campaigns in Egypt and Palestine played down the difficulties faced by the troops. After all, the tempo of operations for the Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) was fairly low for much of the war, and to the press or those who had not been there the sun and the sand could give the mistaken impression that life among the ‘Pyramids and fleshpots’ of the mysterious East was an extended holiday. In truth every day could be a struggle to survive in an almost totally alien environment. Few, if any, of the British troops (all of them from the Territorial Forces or Kitchener’s Army) would have left their own country before, let alone travelled in such areas. Even the Australian personnel, many of whom would have been used to a hotter and harsher environment, would find it difficult.
It should not be forgotten what a ‘culture shock’ arriving in Egypt would have been to almost everyone. In an age before colour magazines let alone television to prepare them to foreign cultures, the vibrant sights, sounds and smells of Alexandria, Port Said or Cairo would have been almost overwhelming. From there, men would have been sent to the very different but equally strange environment of the desert. Here, life could be very hard indeed.
Just the heat itself could be a serious threat. In summer, temperatures regularly topped 30° C (90° F) in the day time, while the khamsin, a hot blast of wind that blows for days on end up from the Sahara, could send them soaring to over 50° C (over 120° F). Yeomanry Sergeant S. F. Hatton recalled spending several days cooped up in a tent with his best friend during one khamsin:
“Our tempers became very ragged, and though we had hutted together for some weeks, this afternoon we could have murdered each other. Things got worse and worse, until it was difficult to keep one’s sanity.”
On the other hand, at nights the temperatures fell drastically, and troops nearer the coast could find mist and dew forming and even freezing on their sleeping bodies. Later in 1917 the troops went from fighting in the sweltering deserts to being high in the wind-swept Judean Mountains during the rainy season in a matter of days. Such extreme changes badly affected not only physical health, but also morale, as men struggled to keep warm and dry in their desert uniforms. The climate was just one of the dangers to mental stability in the desert, and flies rapidly became another. They got everywhere and covered everything, especially food. Some soldiers tried to brush them away before eating, others, in resignation, simply ate the flies as well. Gunner Anthony Bluett recalled their effect after the war:
“It is no light thing that sends a strong man into hysterics or drives one sobbing from his tent, to rush about the camp in a frenzy of wild rage. Yet the flies did this – and more.”
One effective way of dealing with the flies that some men resorted to was to catch one or more of the chameleons that lived wild in Egypt, and improvise leashes to tie them to a branch or stick. These branches could then be suspended inside tents or bivouacs, so that the chameleons could keep down the fly population inside.
As well as flies, sand also got everywhere. Clothes became caked in it, making cloth hard and abrasive, and it got into food and water too. This made it not only unpleasant to eat or drink, but could also lead to problems with the stomach and intestines. Indeed, the heat, sand and the flies were not just a nuisance, but also a severe danger. Only around 10% of British fatalities in Egypt and Palestine were caused by enemy action. Heat- and sun-stroke were common, and disease was rife. In 1917 and 1918 malaria ran amok throughout the army. At times the casualty rates reached over 100% per year as some soldiers were repeatedly hospitalised with different complaints. Unsurprisingly given the hygiene problems caused by desert life, other constant problems were dysentery and diarrhoea. Poor sanitation also led to serious problems with sores and ulcers, many of which became infected. These could be caused by accidentally knocking bare skin against hot metal or leather, or through friction with sand-encrusted items of uniforms. Trooper Victor Godrich recalled:
“Every man in the fighting forces was covered in sceptic sores on their hands, faces and legs – all in bandages. My own hands did not properly heal until the cold weather in December … If one’s hand was accidentally knocked against a saddle, a large piece of skin came off. The result was an open sore that would not heal. The swarms of flies settling on the sore did not improve matters, so we had to use bandages for self-preservation.”
“Our tempers became very ragged, and though we had hutted together for some weeks, this afternoon we could have murdered each other. Things got worse and worse, until it was difficult to keep one’s sanity.”
On the other hand, at nights the temperatures fell drastically, and troops nearer the coast could find mist and dew forming and even freezing on their sleeping bodies. Later in 1917 the troops went from fighting in the sweltering deserts to being high in the wind-swept Judean Mountains during the rainy season in a matter of days. Such extreme changes badly affected not only physical health, but also morale, as men struggled to keep warm and dry in their desert uniforms. The climate was just one of the dangers to mental stability in the desert, and flies rapidly became another. They got everywhere and covered everything, especially food. Some soldiers tried to brush them away before eating, others, in resignation, simply ate the flies as well. Gunner Anthony Bluett recalled their effect after the war:
“It is no light thing that sends a strong man into hysterics or drives one sobbing from his tent, to rush about the camp in a frenzy of wild rage. Yet the flies did this – and more.”
One effective way of dealing with the flies that some men resorted to was to catch one or more of the chameleons that lived wild in Egypt, and improvise leashes to tie them to a branch or stick. These branches could then be suspended inside tents or bivouacs, so that the chameleons could keep down the fly population inside.
As well as flies, sand also got everywhere. Clothes became caked in it, making cloth hard and abrasive, and it got into food and water too. This made it not only unpleasant to eat or drink, but could also lead to problems with the stomach and intestines. Indeed, the heat, sand and the flies were not just a nuisance, but also a severe danger. Only around 10% of British fatalities in Egypt and Palestine were caused by enemy action. Heat- and sun-stroke were common, and disease was rife. In 1917 and 1918 malaria ran amok throughout the army. At times the casualty rates reached over 100% per year as some soldiers were repeatedly hospitalised with different complaints. Unsurprisingly given the hygiene problems caused by desert life, other constant problems were dysentery and diarrhoea. Poor sanitation also led to serious problems with sores and ulcers, many of which became infected. These could be caused by accidentally knocking bare skin against hot metal or leather, or through friction with sand-encrusted items of uniforms. Trooper Victor Godrich recalled:
“Every man in the fighting forces was covered in sceptic sores on their hands, faces and legs – all in bandages. My own hands did not properly heal until the cold weather in December … If one’s hand was accidentally knocked against a saddle, a large piece of skin came off. The result was an open sore that would not heal. The swarms of flies settling on the sore did not improve matters, so we had to use bandages for self-preservation.”
Godrich also recalled a sick parade when the entire regiment turned out: ‘The first line were “bad” cases, wrecks etc. The second line “fairly bad” and the rear rank “not so bad.”’ Only the worst cases would be evacuated to the rear to be treated in hospital. Most sores, and later milder cases of malaria, would be dealt with as much as possible by the Field Ambulances and Aid Stations attached to the battalions and brigades, as to evacuate everyone who suffered would leave the front line almost completely unmanned. Given that there was an over 100% hospitalisation rate despite this approach, it really shows just how widespread health problems were.
As much was done at possible to improve the living and working conditions of the soldiers at the front, or even the rear areas in the desert. New troops coming into Egypt would spend a week or two in relatively comfortable camps in Egypt, learning the basics of desert survival and gradually acclimatizing to the heat. Here they learnt the EEF’s patterns of work: starting very early in the morning, and then stopping again mid-morning to let the worst of the heat pass, before restarting in the afternoon and working well into the night. This way, as much work was done as possible in the cooler periods of the day, and over midday the troops could rest and take what shelter they could. Tents were seldom used by front-line units, and instead men became adept at creating shelters out of blankets, palm-fronds and other foliage. Each man would develop their own little collection of pieces of string or rope, sturdy sticks and pieces of fabric to help with their shelter building.
Digging a short trench and then building the canopy over it also helped. During the day it allowed men to lay on the cooler, deeper sand rather than the upper layers that had been baking in the sun for hours and could be very hot to the touch. By dusk, the heat would have permeated deep enough into the sand that the opposite effect would occur, with men enjoying the warmth of the deeper layers that would only slowly cool off during the night.
As much was done at possible to improve the living and working conditions of the soldiers at the front, or even the rear areas in the desert. New troops coming into Egypt would spend a week or two in relatively comfortable camps in Egypt, learning the basics of desert survival and gradually acclimatizing to the heat. Here they learnt the EEF’s patterns of work: starting very early in the morning, and then stopping again mid-morning to let the worst of the heat pass, before restarting in the afternoon and working well into the night. This way, as much work was done as possible in the cooler periods of the day, and over midday the troops could rest and take what shelter they could. Tents were seldom used by front-line units, and instead men became adept at creating shelters out of blankets, palm-fronds and other foliage. Each man would develop their own little collection of pieces of string or rope, sturdy sticks and pieces of fabric to help with their shelter building.
Digging a short trench and then building the canopy over it also helped. During the day it allowed men to lay on the cooler, deeper sand rather than the upper layers that had been baking in the sun for hours and could be very hot to the touch. By dusk, the heat would have permeated deep enough into the sand that the opposite effect would occur, with men enjoying the warmth of the deeper layers that would only slowly cool off during the night.
Other necessary habits that would have to be learnt included checking blankets, boots, packs and other clothes every morning and night to make sure that scorpions, spiders or snakes had not taken up residence.
The EEF developed other tricks or routines to help, too. A wire-road (essentially long rolls of rabbit-wire pegged to the sand) was laid across the Sinai Desert, giving the men firmer footing on the soft sand. Otherwise, they would sink to their ankles in the sand with every step, creating much more effort. A relaxed approach to uniforms was also adopted, with men allowed to cut the arms short on their tunics, wear lighter sports-shoes or local footwear when off duty, and even convert their trousers into shorts. The historian of the 5th Highland Light Infantry recalled:
“We were allowed a good deal of latitude in the matter of the tunic and a man might choose whether he would increase the warmth of his body by wearing it, or the load on his back by putting it in his pack… As damaged articles could not be quickly replaced, a ragged pack often added to the bizarre aspect of the British soldier, with his dew-whitened helmet, squashed out of all decent shape, shirt of varied hue rolled back from sunburnt chest and arms usually marked by a dirty grey bandage or two, drill shorts stained, blackened and often torn, bare knees, puttees and rather disreputable boots.”
As can be imagined, water became an overriding obsession with the EEF, both as a force and as individuals. A pipeline was constructed across the Sinai Desert, running from near Cairo all the way into Palestine, to keep the army supplied. By May 1917 the pipeline was pumping 2.7m litres (600,000 gallons) of water out of Egypt every day. Local sources were also developed wherever possible, to a sometimes astonishing extent. By the end of 1917, large sets of wells had been established or exploited at Khan Yunis and Shellal, on the border with Palestine. Eventually, 450,000 litres (100,000 gallons) of water would be pumped from the former and over 900,000 litres (200,000 gallons) from the later every single day. Many smaller wells, springs and cisterns were also utilised to keep units supplied, although regulations stated that such water had to be first treated with chlorine. While this undoubtedly made it safe, it did little for the taste.
Every man was supposed to receive 4.5 litres (1 galloon/8 pints) per day, although this ration was seldom fully met. It was split up into four sections: five pints per day went to the cookhouse, for cooking and making tea. Both of these played a vital role in maintaining health and morale. Food was often bland, with lots of stews, but at least they contained fresh vegetables and plenty of liquids. At times, particularly during big battles, the army had to resort to the standard rations of tins of bully beef and hard biscuits, neither of which were at all suitable for desert use. In the heat, bully beef turned in a saline mush, while the biscuits were almost impossible to eat with a dry mouth. Sometimes attempts were made to supplement rations with locally sourced food. Dates were plentiful and popular, as were oranges later in Palestine, but both could have a detrimental effect on the stomach if too many were eaten. Some men tried to eat the flamingos that lived on the Suez Canal, but, Sergeant Hatton found, flamingo meat would turn green on being cooked and ‘was as tough as old boots, and of a similar flavour.’
The EEF developed other tricks or routines to help, too. A wire-road (essentially long rolls of rabbit-wire pegged to the sand) was laid across the Sinai Desert, giving the men firmer footing on the soft sand. Otherwise, they would sink to their ankles in the sand with every step, creating much more effort. A relaxed approach to uniforms was also adopted, with men allowed to cut the arms short on their tunics, wear lighter sports-shoes or local footwear when off duty, and even convert their trousers into shorts. The historian of the 5th Highland Light Infantry recalled:
“We were allowed a good deal of latitude in the matter of the tunic and a man might choose whether he would increase the warmth of his body by wearing it, or the load on his back by putting it in his pack… As damaged articles could not be quickly replaced, a ragged pack often added to the bizarre aspect of the British soldier, with his dew-whitened helmet, squashed out of all decent shape, shirt of varied hue rolled back from sunburnt chest and arms usually marked by a dirty grey bandage or two, drill shorts stained, blackened and often torn, bare knees, puttees and rather disreputable boots.”
As can be imagined, water became an overriding obsession with the EEF, both as a force and as individuals. A pipeline was constructed across the Sinai Desert, running from near Cairo all the way into Palestine, to keep the army supplied. By May 1917 the pipeline was pumping 2.7m litres (600,000 gallons) of water out of Egypt every day. Local sources were also developed wherever possible, to a sometimes astonishing extent. By the end of 1917, large sets of wells had been established or exploited at Khan Yunis and Shellal, on the border with Palestine. Eventually, 450,000 litres (100,000 gallons) of water would be pumped from the former and over 900,000 litres (200,000 gallons) from the later every single day. Many smaller wells, springs and cisterns were also utilised to keep units supplied, although regulations stated that such water had to be first treated with chlorine. While this undoubtedly made it safe, it did little for the taste.
Every man was supposed to receive 4.5 litres (1 galloon/8 pints) per day, although this ration was seldom fully met. It was split up into four sections: five pints per day went to the cookhouse, for cooking and making tea. Both of these played a vital role in maintaining health and morale. Food was often bland, with lots of stews, but at least they contained fresh vegetables and plenty of liquids. At times, particularly during big battles, the army had to resort to the standard rations of tins of bully beef and hard biscuits, neither of which were at all suitable for desert use. In the heat, bully beef turned in a saline mush, while the biscuits were almost impossible to eat with a dry mouth. Sometimes attempts were made to supplement rations with locally sourced food. Dates were plentiful and popular, as were oranges later in Palestine, but both could have a detrimental effect on the stomach if too many were eaten. Some men tried to eat the flamingos that lived on the Suez Canal, but, Sergeant Hatton found, flamingo meat would turn green on being cooked and ‘was as tough as old boots, and of a similar flavour.’
Of the remaining three pints, two were issued for drinking, usually before dawn and after dusk. This was of course a severe trial. The historian of the 5th Highland Light Infantry explains:
“A single water-bottle, once filled, is but a poor supply for a long day under the Egyptian sun. Marching over heavy sand in the hot hours, even when the haversack has replaced the pack, soon produces an unparalleled drought. Sweat runs into a man’s eyes and drips from his chin. It runs down his arms and trickles from his fingers. It drenches his shirt and leaves great white streaks on his equipment. And while so much is running out, the desire to put something in grows and grows. The temptation to take a mouthful becomes well nigh irresistible, and once the bottle of sun-heated chlorine-flavoured water is put to the lips, it is almost impossible to put it down before its precious contents are gone.”
In combat, the suffering of the men could be even worse, as not only did physical exertion increase, but also supply systems almost inevitably broke down as the troops advanced.
The final pint was for hygiene. The men in the desert where every bit as vulnerable to parasites as their comrades in France, as Sergeant Hatton again recalls:
“I cannot describe to an ordinary cleanly person the most revolting sensation that a fellow undergoes when first he discovers that he had become they prey of body-lice. I think I was more inclined to be sick at their appearance than at anything I saw or smelt during the whole War. After a time one got quite used to the little pests, and entered into the sport of the daily “louse” with glee.”
One useful trick denied to those on the Western Front was to lay infected clothes over an ant hill. The ants would swarm up and eat the lice and their eggs, and for a time at least (once the ants had been shaken off) some relief could be found.
This single pint could sometimes be assisted by bathing in the sea or in brackish desert water that was unsuitable for drinking. Gunner Anthony Bluett dwells on the feeling it gave, and perhaps sums up the EEF soldier’s attitude to water in all of its uses:
“You, who dwell in temperate climes, with water – hot and cold – at a hand’s turn, will perhaps accuse me of labouring the point. I cannot help it; no words of mine can express what it meant to have that clean feeling for just an hour or two. It was ineffable luxury; it helped us to endure.”
“A single water-bottle, once filled, is but a poor supply for a long day under the Egyptian sun. Marching over heavy sand in the hot hours, even when the haversack has replaced the pack, soon produces an unparalleled drought. Sweat runs into a man’s eyes and drips from his chin. It runs down his arms and trickles from his fingers. It drenches his shirt and leaves great white streaks on his equipment. And while so much is running out, the desire to put something in grows and grows. The temptation to take a mouthful becomes well nigh irresistible, and once the bottle of sun-heated chlorine-flavoured water is put to the lips, it is almost impossible to put it down before its precious contents are gone.”
In combat, the suffering of the men could be even worse, as not only did physical exertion increase, but also supply systems almost inevitably broke down as the troops advanced.
The final pint was for hygiene. The men in the desert where every bit as vulnerable to parasites as their comrades in France, as Sergeant Hatton again recalls:
“I cannot describe to an ordinary cleanly person the most revolting sensation that a fellow undergoes when first he discovers that he had become they prey of body-lice. I think I was more inclined to be sick at their appearance than at anything I saw or smelt during the whole War. After a time one got quite used to the little pests, and entered into the sport of the daily “louse” with glee.”
One useful trick denied to those on the Western Front was to lay infected clothes over an ant hill. The ants would swarm up and eat the lice and their eggs, and for a time at least (once the ants had been shaken off) some relief could be found.
This single pint could sometimes be assisted by bathing in the sea or in brackish desert water that was unsuitable for drinking. Gunner Anthony Bluett dwells on the feeling it gave, and perhaps sums up the EEF soldier’s attitude to water in all of its uses:
“You, who dwell in temperate climes, with water – hot and cold – at a hand’s turn, will perhaps accuse me of labouring the point. I cannot help it; no words of mine can express what it meant to have that clean feeling for just an hour or two. It was ineffable luxury; it helped us to endure.”